I am starting to realize that the Northeastern region of India is a major hub of rice beer brewing. Bear with me though, as it is somewhat challenging to meander through all the available information. Most sources refer to these drinks as wine, despite them actually being beer. Plus some tribes distill the fermented product while still calling it rice wine. So it is a bit confusing wading through the available information. 

Still, the preparation of alcoholic beverages from rice proves to be a fascinating topic, as it is prepared completely differently.

A slight difference between rice beer cultures and barley or wheat cultures is exposure to the crop. In Europe, barley had to adapt to Northern European climates which necessitated genetic alterations to adapt to sunlight and water extremes. Domesticated rice, however, originated in an area between Eastern India and China more than 10,000 years ago. The wild variety, Oryza rufipogon, naturally grows in the region and shows a close genetic relationship to the domesticated rice cultivar (O. sativa), leading scientists to believe this is rice’s native region. So once people set up camp in the area, rice was already within the region.

Given this longer exposure to humanity, I imagine there is a greater diversity of rice beer cultures and traditions. This begs for a comparison between rice and barley beer cultures, but that is a question for another time.
 

Unlike European and African brewing methods, rice beer brewers have a different approach as rice does not have the alpha and beta amylase enzymes to break down starch. So instead of the typical mash, lauter and boil, the general outline of rice beer brewing is as follows: 

• Prepare the yeast cake 
  
  • Can be bought as well, depending on location
    
• Cook (boil or steam) the rice 
  
  • The primary function of this seems to be to gelatinize the rice
• Let the rice dry
  
  • I am not sure why this step is necessary, but I haven't seen a recipe without it
    
• Grind the yeast cake into a powder, and spread it over the rice
  
• Place rice in a ceramic jar, filling with water to ferment
  
• Fermentation times range from just five days to two weeks
  
• Strain, add more water, drink!

Within Northeastern India lies the region of Assam. What is unique with Assam? Well besides the tea, it is close to the origins of rice. Assam is connected to the rest of India via a small 22 km strip of land in West Bengal, and shares a border with Bhutan and Bangladesh. In Assam, there's roughly around 130 tribal communities (of the 427 within India), with human settlements dating back to the stone age. 

Each tribe in the region appears to have their own recipes for brewing rice beers, some with more than one way of preparation.

​Take the Mishing (or Mising, I’ve read both names) who have at least two types of rice beer: Nogin Apong and Poro Apong. The former being whitish in color while the latter is a dark greenish color (I take the ‘green’ color with a grain of salt). 

The Mishing tribe is the second largest group of people located in Assam, the first being the Bodos. The Mishing peoples belong to the greater Tani community, which comprises a majority of tribes from the Arunachal Pradesh regions of India and Tibet. All Tani tribes share linguistic, cultural, and ritual similarities. It is a bit unclear when the Mishing tribe migrated from Northern China to the plains of Assam, but they did so quite a while ago (Iron age era). 

As stated above, most Assam tribes use a glutinous rice for the purpose of brewing beer. There are reports stating that the Mishing people prefer to use a ‘sticky rice’, but fail to state which rice that is, and how ‘sticky rice’ would differ from glutinous rice. 

In any case, Nogin Apong is your typical rice beer. Whitish in color, and is prepared in a similar way as Sake or Shaoxing rice wine.

To brew, the Mishing prepare their yeast cakes called Apop pitha. To do so, anywhere between 16 to 39 different plants, herbs, and twigs are gathered and cleaned along a bamboo mat. These can either be used immediately after or sun dried for later use.  Then, soaked rice and the gathered plants are ground separately, then combined with a bit of water to form a dough. This dough is then shaped into ovule-like balls of about 3 cm x 6 cm and are then dried under the sun. 
​So with 16 - 39 different herbs, barks, and twigs going into the starter, I imagine the flavors can range greatly. The Mishing people do use two plants from within the Cinnamomum family, but I doubt they taste like cinnamon, especially when they only use the leaves of the plants. 

It’s also not entirely clear how microorganisms are introduced into yeast cakes, as only one article reports inoculating Apop pitha from previous batches. I assume this is the case, as one Apop pitha yeast cake is enough to ferment around 1 kg of rice.

Next, earthenware pots are prepared for fermentation by fumigating it over a fire.

I am making the assumption here that the earthenware pots are cleaned of the remaining ash, as there are no reports of ash flavor, and that the color of Nogin Apong remains ‘whitish’. 

Rice is then boiled and laid out to dry. Then, the yeast starter Apop Pitha is ground and spread over the rice, which is then placed into the earthenware pots. Banana leaves are used to seal the vessel after it has been filled with water. Then it is left to ferment for four to five days. 

This style of rice beer is said to be blackish to reddish brown in color, and is apparently pleasant in aroma and taste. Interestingly, the season to drink this beer is between spring through autumn, which begs the question as to why this beer is not consumed in winter. 

To brew Poro Apong, an apop pitha yeast culture is created and rice is cooked as normal. But when the rice is laid to dry, an ash powder made from rice straw and husks is sprinkled over before the addition of apop pitha. This mixture is then added to earthenware pots (unclear whether these pots were cleaned in the same fashion as before), and sealed with dry straw or fresh leaves. This is then left to ferment for about twenty days. 

After fermentation, the Poro Apong is filtered through a cone made from bamboo, with additional filters of banana leaves within said cone. Water is poured over the mash, to further extract more beer.
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According to one report which analyzed rice beer from Northeast India, most beers range from 3.99% to 5.09% in alcohol, although another resource states that Poro Apong has the strength between 7.52 - 18.5%. Honestly I was expecting alcohol content to be within the 7.52 - 18.5% range, as unfiltered Sake has similar alcohol levels. 

For those curious, the pH ranged between 4.16 to 4.81, with detectable levels of lactic (the most predominate), oxalic, tartaric, pyruvic, formic, and acetic acids. With this range of acids present, there are similar levels of stability (i.e. shelf-life) as seen in lagers.  Furthermore, each beer had differing quantities of organic acids, which further shows how the yeast starter is prepared greatly influences the quality of beer.

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I find it fascinating how the main source of different styles within rice beers from Assam stems from how the yeast starter is prepared. Everything else remains largely the same. Perhaps since there is no boiling of wort, so to speak, grinding and mixing into the yeast starter is the best way to introduce flavors. Or, perhaps it's simply because a yeast starter guarantees the desired fermentative organisms will be present in the batch, so might as well throw in the herbs to save time.

Who knows. More research, more problems.

​When returning from Lake Tahoe along the normal route back to my hometown, I spotted something rather peculiar: the Swiss flag. Even more peculiar was how it was attached to a sign for a brewery, specifically the Ruhstaller Brewery. 

I have, on occasion, had Ruhstaller beer before and was pleasantly surprised. But since they are a Northern Californian brewery, and I living in the South which is dominated by San Diego brews, I never had the chance to frequently sample them. In any case, if I wasn’t set to become a permanent Swiss resident in a few weeks, perhaps I wouldn’t have noticed my new country’s flag. But since today is Switzerland’s national day, I thought I’d have a peek into exactly why Ruhstaller was flying the Swiss flag. Turns out, the original Ruhstaller Brewery was from the 1800s, founded by none other than Captain Frank J. Ruhstaller, a Swiss immigrant from the Canton Schwyz. 

I found this a bit odd. Why would Swiss immigrants go to California, as most Germanic immigrants chose the Midwest? Unbeknownst to me, Sacramento was originally a Swiss settlement and ranch, founded by the Swiss pioneer John Sutter. He dubbed his ranch Nuevo Helvetia, a reference to the Helvetica Republic, the name given to Switzerland by Napoleon. Thankfully, the name didn’t stick, as to me, Nuevo Helvetia sounds like a terrible restaurant.
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​​Captain Frank J. Ruhstaller was an epitome of the American dream. By the time of his death, Ruhstaller had invested and owned multiple breweries, was president of a bank, and had plenty of investments in different businesses throughout Sacramento, including his own building in downtown. According to his obituary, Ruhstaller brewery was, at the time, worth $ 500,000. Not too shabby, as that's around 12-13 million dollars today (if online inflation calculators are to be believed). 

This Frank J. Ruhstaller is shaping up to be a hero of mine.

Born on November 8, 1846, Ruhstaller moved to the United States in 1862 at the ripe old age of 15. Prior to that, according to the ‘An Illustrated History of Sacramento County’, he studied brewing in the Canton Berne. An interesting tidbit of information, since Bern apparently had the first licensed brewery in Switzerland in the 1600s. Note though, that the brewing history of Bern (mind you one of the largest regions in Switzerland) either links to one source which is inaccessible or just passed on as fact. So I’m not too sure what to think. 

What we do know is that Ruhstaller was the foreman of Paul Reising Brewery before he was 18.

How a teenager got the role of a supervisor I will never know. But after his stint in Louisville and St. Albany, Kentucky, he moved to California where he gained employment at the City Brewery. Where, six weeks later, he again was made foreman and held that position for a year. He then bought interest in other breweries, and switched between breweries a bit. Most notably was Pacific Brewery where he spent around three years as the brewer. He then acquired enough funds to buy the City Brewery in 1881, where he stayed til his death. But after he purchased the City Brewery, he helped start the Buffalo Brewery, which became a dominate brewery in the city.
​

​​It is a bit tricky to uncover what Ruhstaller was brewing, given that he has investments in multiple breweries. It is also unclear as to when the City Brewery changed its name to the Ruhstaller Brewery. During the late 1890s, there are advertisements for Ruhstaller’s Gilt Edge Steam Beer put on by the City Brewery. On the other hand, other news clippings state ‘Ruhstaller’s brewery’, so I am inclined to think the man was so popular in Sacramento, that people just referred to the City Brewery as his brewery. Plus, both share the same address of 12th and H streets. So at one point the City Brewery did indeed become the Ruhstaller Brewery. Whether that was intentional, or from colloquial pressure, as everyone called it Ruhstaller’s Brewery anyway, remains to be seen.

To complicate matters further, it is unclear if and when these beers underwent a name change. For example, in 1896 there is an advertisement for Ruhstaller’s Gilt Edge Steam Beer (gilt edge being a term for premium). Later on, however, in 1911, there was an advertisement for the Gilt Edge Lager beer. But given the decline of steam beer’s popularity by the 1900’s, and the advancements of refrigeration, it is possible that either the steam beer was replaced by the lager, or was simply the same beer but with a different marketing name. 

In any case, thanks to Ruhstaller’s marketing efforts we can at least track a few his brewing habits. Ruhstaller produced a bock beer every year around May. As it seems, the bock beer was a classic and acted as a seasonal that Ruhstaller brewed until his death. There is a small advertisement for something called Ruhstaller’s Salvator, but since this only appeared once around May, I am inclined to think he called his bock beer Salvator for marketing reasons.

Curiously, Ruhstaller’s Brewery would advertise when the Bock beer ran out, and then state that his steam beer was still available. Given that there are ads for his steam beer year round, I’d venture to guess there was enough stock of the beer year round. With all this advertising for the steam beer could mean two things. First, it could be a reflection of the beer’s popularity. Or, secondly, it could mean that the steam beer didn’t perform well, and this was a marketing push to sell more product. Since there are advertisements of its availability, it wouldn’t make sense to brew more of the same beer if it wasn’t performing well. And given that steam beer was a popular style in California at the time, I would imagine this falls into the former case

His last two beers were both porters. There are much fewer advertisements for his ‘brown stout porter’ and his ‘fine old porter’ (shipped on ice, mind you). So much so, Ruhstaller’s ‘fine old porter’ is only advertised after an ad for his steam beer. Given that the American taste buds at the time did not go towards malty, heavy beers, perhaps it was only made once or twice to test how it would perform. 

Some brewery records as a cross reference would be great, but for the moment, there’s no solid answers. Still, we do know Ruhstaller was brewing a bock, steam, possibly a lager, and possibly two porters. For a brewery that was estimated around to be worth $500,000 bucks and to only have around 3 - 6 beers is pretty damn impressive.

Ruhstaller is from the town Einsiedeln, in Schwyz, one of the original three Swiss Cantons. Not much is known about his upbringing, but as stated before, he learned to brew in Canton Bern. The information about the brewing history of Switzerland that is out there claim that Bern had the first public brewery back in the 1600s. I am attempting to track down the source for this now, but it is slow going. One thing we can infer though is that Bern might have been a hub for brewing in Switzerland. For instance, there are plenty of historically protected grain houses and at least one brewery that was in operation since the 1840’s. According to the history of the Schweizer Brauerei-Verband (Swiss Brewing Association), the third president was a brewer from Bern, whose brewery was founded in 1844. So perhaps that is where Ruhstaller had his apprenticeship, but that is pure speculation. 

Still, having this level of connection is pretty heartwarming. It’s exciting to uncover Swiss involvement in my home state of California, and definitely helps with the process of emigration. So, I am definitely excited to see where this research will go! Still need to find out more about the brewing history of Switzerland, and to try and uncover more about the good ol’ Cap’n.

​One of the greatest appeals of brewing is how nearly all human societies have developed brewing in one form or another. Meaning, to effectively study the history of brewing, it is necessary to look into a wide range of cultures, which can be a bit daunting at times. So, in an effort to bring sanity and order (mainly to myself for research purposes), I will categorize and continuously update the different alcoholic drinks and brewing methods developed by various countries.
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​​Tanzania lies on the eastern coast of Africa, bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda and the Congo to the west, and Zambia and Mozambique to the south. Tanzania has a tropical climate along its Indian ocean coast and contains temperate weather in its highlands to the north and south. The highest point is Kilimanjaro, which as most know, is the highest point in Africa. 

The population, which sits around 51.8 million people, contains around 125 different ethnic groups, with the Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, and Haya peoples being the biggest. Although the official languages are Swahili and English, there are over 100 different languages spoken making it one of the most linguistically diverse countries in Africa. According to recent reports, 61% of the population identifies as Christian, and 35% identify as Muslim. The remainder are either practitioners of indigenous religions or hold no beliefs. The majority of the population of Zanzibar identify as Muslim, which is curious as they produce the highest amount of sorghum, which is often used for brewing.

Tanzania is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for 85% of its exports, and employs around 66% of the population. Its cash crops are coffee, sisal, tea, cotton, cashews, tobacco, cloves, corn (maize), wheat, cassava, and bananas. Roughly 43.7% of the country’s land has been set aside for agricultural activities, including land for permanent pasture. Plus, 38% of the land has been protected for wildlife conservation.
​

Tanzania is ranked 6th in Africa for beer consumption, the majority of which is homemade. As such, bottled beers are around 6x more expensive. The biggest breweries in the country, Tanzania Breweries Limited and East African Breweries Limited, mainly produce lagers.

​Turbid beer: A turbid beer is an alcoholic beverage which is not diluted with hot water, and consumed directly. Example of turbid beer: Komoni

Straw Beer: To prepare a straw beer, hot water is added to the batch. This separates the beverage into three layers: the upper (containing floating husks), the middle (where clear beer sits), and the lower (containing sediment and precipitates) layer. Example of straw beer: Kimpumu, Kiambule

Meads: Honey wine. Examples: Dengelua, Mbege, Wanzuki,

Fruit wines: brewed with pineapple, plums or palm juice. Examples: Mnanasi, Mofru, Njimbo, Tembo-mnazi
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​The only description of malting is as follows: To germinate grain, maize and finger millet are soaked in water for a day. Afterward, seeds are placed in a nylon bag for two days. Once sprouted, they are placed on the floor and covered for one day. The source states they are sprayed, but to what with remains unclear. The grains are then left to dry in the sun for two to three days to effectively stop the germination process.

Source: Kubo, Ryosuke. "Brewing Technique of Mbege, a Banana Beer Produced in Northeastern Tanzania." Beverages 2.3 (2016): 21.
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Unknown. But it is assumed that some strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and lacto bacteria of some kind are present.
​

Earliest evidence for beer in Egypt is around 3500 BC

Much of which is artistic: egyptians displayed the brewing process on the walls of their tombs

Beer was used for payment to workers, and was used in cult and medicinal purposes

Two pre-dynastic sites at Abydos and Hierakonpolis uncovered large vats, which suggest breweries

Examples of Egyptian beers:

Dark Beer, Iron Beer, Garnished Beer, Friend’s Beer, Beer of the Protector, Beer of Truth: Drunk by the 12 gods who guarded the shrine of Osiris, Beer which does not sour, Beer of Eternity, Sweet Beer, Thick Beer

Issues with artistic interpretations: Function of funerary illustrations was not for beer recipes, but to aid the deceased in the afterlife (most information derived is major generalizations). It doesnt tell you which grains were used nor any precise definition of how beer was made

End of brewing culture most likely the result of Greek invasion and conversion to Islam

Alexander the Great introduced wine, which soon became the favorite drink of the upper class.  Beer production and sale was tightly regulated and ultimately beer making became a state monopoly. Greeks (Then Romans) were determined to make wine the drink for civilized people.  This is most likely due to them being surrounded by beer drinkers who obstructed their expansion

For Romans however, they had to accommodate their legions, and we have a grocery list for soldiers along Hadrian’s wall which includes beer
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Spread of agriculture started in Mesopotamia, and followed two main routes: following the Danube and Rhine river valleys, the other along the Mediterranean coast

• Photoresponsive gene had to evolve and adapt through the northern Europe, thus slowing the progression
• Wheat had an easier time spreading along the Mediterranean coast

General consensus is that with the spread of agriculture so spread brewing technology

Since wheat had an easier time to spread throughout the Mediterranean, then it is no surprise that Spain developed a brewing culture around using wheat

For northern Europe - air drying of soaked cereals would not make malt (which is what Near eastern brewers did), so a different technology had to be developed (evidence for which found in Germany)

Other than that we know little about European brewing, save the mentions of brewing by Romans 

Through the end of Roman rule, monasteries preserved brewing techniques
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Artistic Interpretations: as mentioned above, archaeologists can derive information from paintings and other imagery on the brewing process

Literary Records: Either tax records or stories

Residue Analysis: Liquid chromatographical analysis of residues found from artefacts. Briefly, chromatography works by separating individual particles within a sample via solid and liquid stages.
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I always like to end this lecture with the following quote, mainly because it is so relatable to modern day students. It comes from a 19th Dynasty papyrus in Egypt, from a teacher to his pupil:

I am told that thou forsakest books
and dost abandon thyself to pleasure.
Thou dost wander from tavern to tavern
Every evening the smell of beer, the smell of beer frightens men away from thee
It corrups thy soul,
and thou art like a broken oar
Thou canst guide to neither side
Thou art like a temple without a god
like a house without bread
The people flee from thee
and thou dost strike and wound them
O, that thou wouldst comprehend that beer is an abomination
and that wouldst abjure the pomegranate drink
that thou would not set thy heart on fig wine
and that thou wouldst forget the carob wine

The human penchant for the consumption of psychoactive substances is a part of ourselves like our thirst for water. Even modern day society is structured around drinking events, each differing with levels of scale and which beverage is deemed appropriate. Whether it is tea time or a glass of wine, neither is a necessity for overall health and is only seen as a means for hospitality. For better or for worse, the benefits and allure for mind-altering effects play a role in our feasting habits, rituals, code of conduct, work, taxation and our basic dietary requirements.  Yet it was not until the early 19th century when the cynicism towards alcohol developed, and so to the association of intoxication with adolescent behavior. The result of which has shifted the attention of consumption from its cultural importance to its ill effects on society.
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This does not imply humans have not been wary of alcohol’s harmful effects on the body.  Indeed, an ancient Egyptian letter revealed a teacher pleading with their pupil to return to their studies and refrain from over-consumption: 

        I am told that thou forsakest books
        (and) dost abandon thyself to pleasure.
        Thou dost wander from tavern to tavern.
        Every evening the smell of beer,
        The smell of beer frightens men away (from thee).
        It corrupts they soul,
        (and) thou art like a broken oar.
        Thou canst guide to neither side.
        Thou art like a temple without a god,
        (like) a house without bread.
        Thou art detected as thou climbest up the walls,
        And breakest the plank.
        The people flee from thee,
        And thou dost strike and wound them.
        O, that thou wouldst comprehend that wine is an abomination
        And that thou wouldst abjure the pomegranate-drink;
        That thou wouldst not set they heart on fig-wine,
        And that thou woulds forget the carob-wine

Despite the clear distaste for consumption this teacher has, a great deal of Egyptian medicine involved alcohol. There was even beer reserved for priests during times of worship.  If beer was simply a beverage to satisfy hunger and thirst, would we see such fervent dedication to its crafting? This, then, signifies the cultural role drink plays with Egyptian society. 

Thus to gain a better understanding of alcohol and its role in society, it is necessary to study alcohol with a focus on cultural importance, rather than addiction and abuse.
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Production is divided into three steps: Nyalu preparation, Mso preparation, followed by the mixing step.

Nyalu Preparation

Nyalu refers to fermented banana juice, which serves as the primary source for fermentative organisms. In the Chaga tribe, this is done by cooking a 1:1 ratio of ripened bananas to water. This mixture is then cooked over high temperature until the liquid turns red and no more clumps remain. This is then filtered and left to ferment (via open fermentation) for 9 - 12 days, depending on the season. 

Prior to fermentation, some brewers add powdered bark (called Msesewe) to the liquid. This bark, derived from the Rauvolfia caffra tree, provides a level of bitterness and aids in fermentation. In previous studies, it was seen that tannins from Mangrove tree bark serve as a protective agent against microbial infection, except for yeast. ​