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The Rice Beers of the Mishing People

11/8/2017

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I am starting to realize that the Northeastern region of India is a major hub of rice beer brewing. Bear with me though, as it is somewhat challenging to meander through all the available information. Most sources refer to these drinks as wine, despite them actually being beer. Plus some tribes distill the fermented product while still calling it rice wine. So it is a bit confusing wading through the available information. 

Still, the preparation of alcoholic beverages from rice proves to be a fascinating topic, as it is prepared completely differently.

Rice
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A slight difference between rice beer cultures and barley or wheat cultures is exposure to the crop. In Europe, barley had to adapt to Northern European climates which necessitated genetic alterations to adapt to sunlight and water extremes. Domesticated rice, however, originated in an area between Eastern India and China more than 10,000 years ago. The wild variety, Oryza rufipogon, naturally grows in the region and shows a close genetic relationship to the domesticated rice cultivar (O. sativa), leading scientists to believe this is rice’s native region. So once people set up camp in the area, rice was already within the region.

Given this longer exposure to humanity, I imagine there is a greater diversity of rice beer cultures and traditions. This begs for a comparison between rice and barley beer cultures, but that is a question for another time.
 

Brewing Methods

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Lungzubel (rice beer container) made by Lamlira in Khobak village, Dima Hasao, Assam, India.
Unlike European and African brewing methods, rice beer brewers have a different approach as rice does not have the alpha and beta amylase enzymes to break down starch. So instead of the typical mash, lauter and boil, the general outline of rice beer brewing is as follows: 
  • Prepare the yeast cake 
    • Can be bought as well, depending on location
  • Cook (boil or steam) the rice 
    • The primary function of this seems to be to gelatinize the rice
  • Let the rice dry
    • I am not sure why this step is necessary, but I haven't seen a recipe without it
  • Grind the yeast cake into a powder, and spread it over the rice
  • Place rice in a ceramic jar, filling with water to ferment
  • Fermentation times range from just five days to two weeks
  • Strain, add more water, drink!

Assam

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Assam Region
Within Northeastern India lies the region of Assam. What is unique with Assam? Well besides the tea, it is close to the origins of rice. Assam is connected to the rest of India via a small 22 km strip of land in West Bengal, and shares a border with Bhutan and Bangladesh. In Assam, there's roughly around 130 tribal communities (of the 427 within India), with human settlements dating back to the stone age. 

Each tribe in the region appears to have their own recipes for brewing rice beers, some with more than one way of preparation.

​Take the Mishing (or Mising, I’ve read both names) who have at least two types of rice beer: Nogin Apong and Poro Apong. The former being whitish in color while the latter is a dark greenish color (I take the ‘green’ color with a grain of salt). 

Mishing Tribe
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The Mishing tribe is the second largest group of people located in Assam, the first being the Bodos. The Mishing peoples belong to the greater Tani community, which comprises a majority of tribes from the Arunachal Pradesh regions of India and Tibet. All Tani tribes share linguistic, cultural, and ritual similarities. It is a bit unclear when the Mishing tribe migrated from Northern China to the plains of Assam, but they did so quite a while ago (Iron age era). 


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Mishing house

Nogin Apong

As stated above, most Assam tribes use a glutinous rice for the purpose of brewing beer. There are reports stating that the Mishing people prefer to use a ‘sticky rice’, but fail to state which rice that is, and how ‘sticky rice’ would differ from glutinous rice. 

In any case, Nogin Apong is your typical rice beer. Whitish in color, and is prepared in a similar way as Sake or Shaoxing rice wine.

To brew, the Mishing prepare their yeast cakes called Apop pitha. To do so, anywhere between 16 to 39 different plants, herbs, and twigs are gathered and cleaned along a bamboo mat. These can either be used immediately after or sun dried for later use.  Then, soaked rice and the gathered plants are ground separately, then combined with a bit of water to form a dough. This dough is then shaped into ovule-like balls of about 3 cm x 6 cm and are then dried under the sun. 
​So with 16 - 39 different herbs, barks, and twigs going into the starter, I imagine the flavors can range greatly. The Mishing people do use two plants from within the Cinnamomum family, but I doubt they taste like cinnamon, especially when they only use the leaves of the plants. 

It’s also not entirely clear how microorganisms are introduced into yeast cakes, as only one article reports inoculating Apop pitha from previous batches. I assume this is the case, as one Apop pitha yeast cake is enough to ferment around 1 kg of rice.

Next, earthenware pots are prepared for fermentation by fumigating it over a fire.

I am making the assumption here that the earthenware pots are cleaned of the remaining ash, as there are no reports of ash flavor, and that the color of Nogin Apong remains ‘whitish’. 

Rice is then boiled and laid out to dry. Then, the yeast starter Apop Pitha is ground and spread over the rice, which is then placed into the earthenware pots. Banana leaves are used to seal the vessel after it has been filled with water. Then it is left to ferment for four to five days. 

Poro Apong
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This style of rice beer is said to be blackish to reddish brown in color, and is apparently pleasant in aroma and taste. Interestingly, the season to drink this beer is between spring through autumn, which begs the question as to why this beer is not consumed in winter. 

To brew Poro Apong, an apop pitha yeast culture is created and rice is cooked as normal. But when the rice is laid to dry, an ash powder made from rice straw and husks is sprinkled over before the addition of apop pitha. This mixture is then added to earthenware pots (unclear whether these pots were cleaned in the same fashion as before), and sealed with dry straw or fresh leaves. This is then left to ferment for about twenty days. 

After fermentation, the Poro Apong is filtered through a cone made from bamboo, with additional filters of banana leaves within said cone. Water is poured over the mash, to further extract more beer.
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Compounds
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According to one report which analyzed rice beer from Northeast India, most beers range from 3.99% to 5.09% in alcohol, although another resource states that Poro Apong has the strength between 7.52 - 18.5%. Honestly I was expecting alcohol content to be within the 7.52 - 18.5% range, as unfiltered Sake has similar alcohol levels. 

For those curious, the pH ranged between 4.16 to 4.81, with detectable levels of lactic (the most predominate), oxalic, tartaric, pyruvic, formic, and acetic acids. With this range of acids present, there are similar levels of stability (i.e. shelf-life) as seen in lagers.  Furthermore, each beer had differing quantities of organic acids, which further shows how the yeast starter is prepared greatly influences the quality of beer.

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Conclusions

I find it fascinating how the main source of different styles within rice beers from Assam stems from how the yeast starter is prepared. Everything else remains largely the same. Perhaps since there is no boiling of wort, so to speak, grinding and mixing into the yeast starter is the best way to introduce flavors. Or, perhaps it's simply because a yeast starter guarantees the desired fermentative organisms will be present in the batch, so might as well throw in the herbs to save time.

Who knows. More research, more problems.


References

Bhuyan, Biman, and Krishna Baishya. "Ethno medicinal value of various plants used in the preparation of traditional rice beer by different tribes of Assam, India." Drug Invention Today 5.4 (2013): 335-341.

Das, Arup Jyoti, et al. "HPLC and GC‐MS analyses of organic acids, carbohydrates, amino acids and volatile aromatic compounds in some varieties of rice beer from northeast India." Journal of the Institute of Brewing 120.3 (2014): 244-252.

Gogoi, Barnali, Mayurakhi Dutta, and Prodyut Mondal. "Various Ethno Medicinal Plants used in the Preparation of Apong, a Traditional Beverage use by Mising Tribe of upper Assam." (2013).

Kardong, Devid, et al. "Evaluation of Nutritional and Biochemical aspects of Po: ro apong (Saimod)-A home made alcoholic rice beverage of Mising tribe of Assam, India." (2012).

Tanti, Bhaben, et al. "Ethnobotany of starter cultures used in alcohol fermentation by a few ethnic tribes of Northeast India." (2010).

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Swiss Brewing in America

8/1/2017

8 Comments

 
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The Story of Captain Frank Ruhstaller
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​When returning from Lake Tahoe along the normal route back to my hometown, I spotted something rather peculiar: the Swiss flag. Even more peculiar was how it was attached to a sign for a brewery, specifically the Ruhstaller Brewery. 

I have, on occasion, had Ruhstaller beer before and was pleasantly surprised. But since they are a Northern Californian brewery, and I living in the South which is dominated by San Diego brews, I never had the chance to frequently sample them. In any case, if I wasn’t set to become a permanent Swiss resident in a few weeks, perhaps I wouldn’t have noticed my new country’s flag. But since today is Switzerland’s national day, I thought I’d have a peek into exactly why Ruhstaller was flying the Swiss flag. Turns out, the original Ruhstaller Brewery was from the 1800s, founded by none other than Captain Frank J. Ruhstaller, a Swiss immigrant from the Canton Schwyz. 

I found this a bit odd. Why would Swiss immigrants go to California, as most Germanic immigrants chose the Midwest? Unbeknownst to me, Sacramento was originally a Swiss settlement and ranch, founded by the Swiss pioneer John Sutter. He dubbed his ranch Nuevo Helvetia, a reference to the Helvetica Republic, the name given to Switzerland by Napoleon. Thankfully, the name didn’t stick, as to me, Nuevo Helvetia sounds like a terrible restaurant.
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The Man

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​​Captain Frank J. Ruhstaller was an epitome of the American dream. By the time of his death, Ruhstaller had invested and owned multiple breweries, was president of a bank, and had plenty of investments in different businesses throughout Sacramento, including his own building in downtown. According to his obituary, Ruhstaller brewery was, at the time, worth $ 500,000. Not too shabby, as that's around 12-13 million dollars today (if online inflation calculators are to be believed). 

This Frank J. Ruhstaller is shaping up to be a hero of mine.

Born on November 8, 1846, Ruhstaller moved to the United States in 1862 at the ripe old age of 15. Prior to that, according to the ‘An Illustrated History of Sacramento County’, he studied brewing in the Canton Berne. An interesting tidbit of information, since Bern apparently had the first licensed brewery in Switzerland in the 1600s. Note though, that the brewing history of Bern (mind you one of the largest regions in Switzerland) either links to one source which is inaccessible or just passed on as fact. So I’m not too sure what to think. 

What we do know is that Ruhstaller was the foreman of Paul Reising Brewery before he was 18.

How a teenager got the role of a supervisor I will never know. But after his stint in Louisville and St. Albany, Kentucky, he moved to California where he gained employment at the City Brewery. Where, six weeks later, he again was made foreman and held that position for a year. He then bought interest in other breweries, and switched between breweries a bit. Most notably was Pacific Brewery where he spent around three years as the brewer. He then acquired enough funds to buy the City Brewery in 1881, where he stayed til his death. But after he purchased the City Brewery, he helped start the Buffalo Brewery, which became a dominate brewery in the city.
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The Beers

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​​It is a bit tricky to uncover what Ruhstaller was brewing, given that he has investments in multiple breweries. It is also unclear as to when the City Brewery changed its name to the Ruhstaller Brewery. During the late 1890s, there are advertisements for Ruhstaller’s Gilt Edge Steam Beer put on by the City Brewery. On the other hand, other news clippings state ‘Ruhstaller’s brewery’, so I am inclined to think the man was so popular in Sacramento, that people just referred to the City Brewery as his brewery. Plus, both share the same address of 12th and H streets. So at one point the City Brewery did indeed become the Ruhstaller Brewery. Whether that was intentional, or from colloquial pressure, as everyone called it Ruhstaller’s Brewery anyway, remains to be seen.

To complicate matters further, it is unclear if and when these beers underwent a name change. For example, in 1896 there is an advertisement for Ruhstaller’s Gilt Edge Steam Beer (gilt edge being a term for premium). Later on, however, in 1911, there was an advertisement for the Gilt Edge Lager beer. But given the decline of steam beer’s popularity by the 1900’s, and the advancements of refrigeration, it is possible that either the steam beer was replaced by the lager, or was simply the same beer but with a different marketing name. 

In any case, thanks to Ruhstaller’s marketing efforts we can at least track a few his brewing habits. Ruhstaller produced a bock beer every year around May. As it seems, the bock beer was a classic and acted as a seasonal that Ruhstaller brewed until his death. There is a small advertisement for something called Ruhstaller’s Salvator, but since this only appeared once around May, I am inclined to think he called his bock beer Salvator for marketing reasons.

Curiously, Ruhstaller’s Brewery would advertise when the Bock beer ran out, and then state that his steam beer was still available. Given that there are ads for his steam beer year round, I’d venture to guess there was enough stock of the beer year round. With all this advertising for the steam beer could mean two things. First, it could be a reflection of the beer’s popularity. Or, secondly, it could mean that the steam beer didn’t perform well, and this was a marketing push to sell more product. Since there are advertisements of its availability, it wouldn’t make sense to brew more of the same beer if it wasn’t performing well. And given that steam beer was a popular style in California at the time, I would imagine this falls into the former case

His last two beers were both porters. There are much fewer advertisements for his ‘brown stout porter’ and his ‘fine old porter’ (shipped on ice, mind you). So much so, Ruhstaller’s ‘fine old porter’ is only advertised after an ad for his steam beer. Given that the American taste buds at the time did not go towards malty, heavy beers, perhaps it was only made once or twice to test how it would perform. 

Some brewery records as a cross reference would be great, but for the moment, there’s no solid answers. Still, we do know Ruhstaller was brewing a bock, steam, possibly a lager, and possibly two porters. For a brewery that was estimated around to be worth $500,000 bucks and to only have around 3 - 6 beers is pretty damn impressive.

Swiss History

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Cloisture in Einsiedeln, via Wikicommons
Ruhstaller is from the town Einsiedeln, in Schwyz, one of the original three Swiss Cantons. Not much is known about his upbringing, but as stated before, he learned to brew in Canton Bern. The information about the brewing history of Switzerland that is out there claim that Bern had the first public brewery back in the 1600s. I am attempting to track down the source for this now, but it is slow going. One thing we can infer though is that Bern might have been a hub for brewing in Switzerland. For instance, there are plenty of historically protected grain houses and at least one brewery that was in operation since the 1840’s. According to the history of the Schweizer Brauerei-Verband (Swiss Brewing Association), the third president was a brewer from Bern, whose brewery was founded in 1844. So perhaps that is where Ruhstaller had his apprenticeship, but that is pure speculation. 

Still, having this level of connection is pretty heartwarming. It’s exciting to uncover Swiss involvement in my home state of California, and definitely helps with the process of emigration. So, I am definitely excited to see where this research will go! Still need to find out more about the brewing history of Switzerland, and to try and uncover more about the good ol’ Cap’n.


References

An Illustrated History of Sacramento County, California. By Hon. Win. J. Davis. Lewis Publishing Company 1890. Page 324-325.

California Digital Newspaper Collection - https://cdnc.ucr.edu/

Chronicling America, Library of Congress - http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/

​Hieronymus, Stan. Brewing Local: American-Grown Beer. Brewers Publications, 2016.
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Brewing Geography

7/17/2017

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​One of the greatest appeals of brewing is how nearly all human societies have developed brewing in one form or another. Meaning, to effectively study the history of brewing, it is necessary to look into a wide range of cultures, which can be a bit daunting at times. So, in an effort to bring sanity and order (mainly to myself for research purposes), I will categorize and continuously update the different alcoholic drinks and brewing methods developed by various countries.
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Tanzania

​​Tanzania lies on the eastern coast of Africa, bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda and the Congo to the west, and Zambia and Mozambique to the south. Tanzania has a tropical climate along its Indian ocean coast and contains temperate weather in its highlands to the north and south. The highest point is Kilimanjaro, which as most know, is the highest point in Africa. 

The population, which sits around 51.8 million people, contains around 125 different ethnic groups, with the Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, and Haya peoples being the biggest. Although the official languages are Swahili and English, there are over 100 different languages spoken making it one of the most linguistically diverse countries in Africa. According to recent reports, 61% of the population identifies as Christian, and 35% identify as Muslim. The remainder are either practitioners of indigenous religions or hold no beliefs. The majority of the population of Zanzibar identify as Muslim, which is curious as they produce the highest amount of sorghum, which is often used for brewing.

Tanzania is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for 85% of its exports, and employs around 66% of the population. Its cash crops are coffee, sisal, tea, cotton, cashews, tobacco, cloves, corn (maize), wheat, cassava, and bananas. Roughly 43.7% of the country’s land has been set aside for agricultural activities, including land for permanent pasture. Plus, 38% of the land has been protected for wildlife conservation.
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Consumption

Tanzania is ranked 6th in Africa for beer consumption, the majority of which is homemade. As such, bottled beers are around 6x more expensive. The biggest breweries in the country, Tanzania Breweries Limited and East African Breweries Limited, mainly produce lagers.

Names

With the wealth of linguistic diversity, so too are the words for beer. So despite pombe being the Swahili word for beer, it does not make it easier to define which alcoholic beverages come from Tanzania, as Swahili is spoken in other African Great Lake countries. Still, from what I can tell, drinks from Tanzania include:
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  • Boha: Sugarcane and Boha
  • Dengelua: Sugarcane and Honey
  • Kangara: Maize and Sugar
  • Kiambule: Maize and Finger millet
  • Kibuku Mtwara: Maize and Sorghum
  • Kimpumu: Finger millet
  • Kindi: Maize and Finger millet
  • Komoni: Maize and Finger millet
  • Mbege: Banana and Finger millet
  • Mnanasi - pineapples
  • Mtama: Only source is Tiisekwa, B. "Traditional beers processing in Tanzania: development Africa Focus (Belgium) (1986).” which I don’t have access too. But Mtama apparently is a beer made from Sorghum.
  • Mofru - Plums or Pineapple
  • Njimbo:Sugar and Tea leaves
  • Tembo-mnazi: Palm juice
  • Wanzuki: honey
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Styles

​Turbid beer: A turbid beer is an alcoholic beverage which is not diluted with hot water, and consumed directly. Example of turbid beer: Komoni

Straw Beer: To prepare a straw beer, hot water is added to the batch. This separates the beverage into three layers: the upper (containing floating husks), the middle (where clear beer sits), and the lower (containing sediment and precipitates) layer. Example of straw beer: Kimpumu, Kiambule

Meads: Honey wine. Examples: Dengelua, Mbege, Wanzuki,

Fruit wines: brewed with pineapple, plums or palm juice. Examples: Mnanasi, Mofru, Njimbo, Tembo-mnazi
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Malting

​The only description of malting is as follows: To germinate grain, maize and finger millet are soaked in water for a day. Afterward, seeds are placed in a nylon bag for two days. Once sprouted, they are placed on the floor and covered for one day. The source states they are sprayed, but to what with remains unclear. The grains are then left to dry in the sun for two to three days to effectively stop the germination process.

Source: Kubo, Ryosuke. "Brewing Technique of Mbege, a Banana Beer Produced in Northeastern Tanzania." Beverages 2.3 (2016): 21.
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Methods of Brewing

So far, I have only been able to find brewing methods of four drinks: Komoni, Kimpumu, Kiambule, and Mbege. Despite being four different drinks, the one common theme employed by Tanzanian brewing is developing a fermentation source, and combining it with another, typically more nutritious, liquid. For example, to brew Komoni, a porridge of maize and finger millet is made and allow to ferment for a few days. Once completed, a separate porridge of maize and finger millet is prepared, and then added to the fermented porridge. This new slurry is stirred and left to stand for half a day, filtered, and then sold for consumption. Changes with ratios of grain to water and preparations of porridges is what helps develop different flavors with these beers.
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Fermentative Organisms

Unknown. But it is assumed that some strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and lacto bacteria of some kind are present.
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Sources

​The following is a current list of sources that discuss brewing in Tanzania in some form.

Baroin, Catherine. "De la bière de banane au soda en bouteille. Religion et boisson chez les Rwa du Mont Meru Tanzanie du Nord." Journal des africanistes 71.2 (2001): 77-94.

Carlson, Robert G. "Banana beer, reciprocity, and ancestor propitiation among the Haya of Bukoba, Tanzania." Ethnology 29.4 (1990): 297-311.

Fukui, Katsuyoshi. "Alcoholic drinks of the Iraqw: brewing methods and social functions." Kyoto University African Studies 5 (1970): 125-148.

Green, Maia. "Trading on inequality: gender and the drinks trade in southern Tanzania." Africa 69.3 (1999): 404-425.

Kubo, Ryosuke. "Production of indigenous alcoholic beverages in a rural village of Tanzania." Journal of the Institute of Brewing 120.2 (2014): 142-148.

Kubo, Ryosuke. "Brewing Technique of Mbege, a Banana Beer Produced in Northeastern Tanzania." Beverages 2.3 (2016): 21.

Laswai, Henri S., et al. "The Under-Exploited Indigenous Alcoholic Beverages of Tanzania: Production, Consumption and Quality of the Undocumented" Denge." (1997).

Makindara, J. R., et al. "Consumer preferences and market potential for sorghum based clear beer in Tanzania." Journal of Brewing and Distilling 4.1 (2013): 1-10.

McCoy, Sandra I., et al. "Alcohol production as an adaptive livelihood strategy for women farmers in Tanzania and its potential for unintended consequences on women’s reproductive health." PloS one 8.3 (2013): e59343.

Nikander, P., et al. "Ingredients and contaminants of traditional alcoholic beverages in Tanzania." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 85.1 (1991): 133-135.

Rekdal, Ole Bjørn. "Money, milk and sorghum beer: Change and continuity among the Iraqw of Tanzania." Africa 66.3 (1996): 367-385.

B. Shayo, A. Kamala, AB Gidamis, SAM Nnko, N. "Aspects of manufacture, composition and safety of orubisi: a traditional alcoholic beverage in the north-western region of Tanzania." International journal of food sciences and nutrition 51.5 (2000): 395-402.

Tiisekwa, B. "Traditional beers processing in Tanzania: development needs [Mtama beer, sorghum beer]." Africa Focus (Belgium) (1986).

Tiisekwa, B., A. Huyghebaert, and L. de Mey. "Suggestions of approaches to improve the manufacture of wanzuki (a Tanzanian honey beer)." Belgian journal of food chemistry and biotechnology 43.4 (1988): 125-130.

Tusekwa, B., and A. Huyghebaert. "Traditional alcoholic beverages of Tanzania: suggestions of approaches to improve the manufacture of Ugwagwa." Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen Rijksuniversiteit Gent (1988).

Tusekwa, TCE Mosha, HS Laswai, EE Towo, A. B. "Traditional alcoholic beverages of Tanzania: production, quality and changes in quality attributes during storage." International journal of food sciences and nutrition 51.2 (2000): 135-143.

Willis, Justin. "For Women and Children: An Economic History of Brewing Among the Nyakyusa of Southwestern Tanzania." (2002): 55-73.
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A Brief History of Beer

2/13/2017

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Brewing up the Past
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As I mentioned in my previous post, I was asked to give a talk at a local, women only craft beer club. Since it is on the history of brewing and some people weren't able to attend, I thought I would post it below, with my talking points typed out.
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Intro

To begin, it is necessary to define beer. Although this may seem trivial, given the many ways humans have caused alcoholic fermentation, it is easier for research purposes to have set definitions. Therefore, beer as I see it is defined as a beverage derived from converting starch to simple sugars followed by fermentation.

With that set, there is now a range of different types of beers besides barley and includes other cultures in the mix (particularly Africa, Asia, and the Americas).

Types of beer: barley, rice, agave, corn, oat, millet

Process: take malted grain - mash - sparge - boil - ferment - drink
-    Hops are only introduced around the 800s, and spread from there
-    Before that it was gruit (a mixture of herbs)
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Earliest Evidence

Only when semi sedentary complex hunter/gatherers does evidence for alcohol appear

General Consensus: Late Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures provided staging ground for which cereal domestication took place

It is theoretically possible that beer was the driving force behind cereal domestication, but highly unlikely

The Necessary Technology: 
Tools for harvesting and processing cereal grains en masse
Long term grain storage
Surplus population as workforce
Reports of storage pits at Ain Mallaha, Wadi Hammeh 27, Rakafet

Technologies as indirect evidence
Watertight containers like ground stone or hollowed wood have been discovered
Animal bones were processed for grease through boiling
Container used for mashing could be used for boiling (if boiling was even necessary)
Mortars resemble brewing pots
  • Would be ideal for crushing cereal
  • Already were used for the processing of nuts 
  • Had to boil nut oil in order to remove toxins
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Mesopotamia

​Sumer is the oldest recorded brewing society, thanks to tax forms
ranged from fourth millennium bc to the fifth century bc

Reports of which show that the government supplied a man with grain for nine years for the purpose of brewing

Attitude towards beer: Epic of Gilgamesh talks about Enkidu, a savage man, becoming civilized through the drinking of beer, which shows beer as a cornerstone of civilizations

In the beginning there were around nine different beer types produced from barley and barley malt, where in the end with Babylon, there were around 70 different types:

Black beer, red beer, barley beer, spelt beer, fine white beer, fine black beer, prima beer, 20 qa beer, 30 qa beer Sweet mixed beer, common mixed beer, mixed beer flavoured with spices, One year old beer

Hymn To ninkasi represents the general process for brewing at this time, although this came along much later

Borne of flowing water, your town by the sacred lake with great walls
You are the one who bakes the bappir in the big oven…puts in order the piles of hulled grain…waters the malt set on the ground…soaks the malt in a jar…the waves rise, the waves fall
You are the one who spreads the cooked mash on large reed mats…coolness overcomes
The filtering vat, which makes a pleasant sound
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Egypt

Earliest evidence for beer in Egypt is around 3500 BC

Much of which is artistic: egyptians displayed the brewing process on the walls of their tombs

Beer was used for payment to workers, and was used in cult and medicinal purposes

Two pre-dynastic sites at Abydos and Hierakonpolis uncovered large vats, which suggest breweries

Examples of Egyptian beers:

Dark Beer, Iron Beer, Garnished Beer, Friend’s Beer, Beer of the Protector, Beer of Truth: Drunk by the 12 gods who guarded the shrine of Osiris, Beer which does not sour, Beer of Eternity, Sweet Beer, Thick Beer

Issues with artistic interpretations: Function of funerary illustrations was not for beer recipes, but to aid the deceased in the afterlife (most information derived is major generalizations). It doesnt tell you which grains were used nor any precise definition of how beer was made

End of brewing culture most likely the result of Greek invasion and conversion to Islam

Alexander the Great introduced wine, which soon became the favorite drink of the upper class.  Beer production and sale was tightly regulated and ultimately beer making became a state monopoly. Greeks (Then Romans) were determined to make wine the drink for civilized people.  This is most likely due to them being surrounded by beer drinkers who obstructed their expansion

For Romans however, they had to accommodate their legions, and we have a grocery list for soldiers along Hadrian’s wall which includes beer
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Europe

Spread of agriculture started in Mesopotamia, and followed two main routes: following the Danube and Rhine river valleys, the other along the Mediterranean coast
  • Photoresponsive gene had to evolve and adapt through the northern Europe, thus slowing the progression
  • Wheat had an easier time spreading along the Mediterranean coast

General consensus is that with the spread of agriculture so spread brewing technology

Since wheat had an easier time to spread throughout the Mediterranean, then it is no surprise that Spain developed a brewing culture around using wheat

For northern Europe - air drying of soaked cereals would not make malt (which is what Near eastern brewers did), so a different technology had to be developed (evidence for which found in Germany)

Other than that we know little about European brewing, save the mentions of brewing by Romans 

Through the end of Roman rule, monasteries preserved brewing techniques
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How It's Done
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Artistic Interpretations: as mentioned above, archaeologists can derive information from paintings and other imagery on the brewing process

Literary Records: Either tax records or stories

Residue Analysis: Liquid chromatographical analysis of residues found from artefacts. Briefly, chromatography works by separating individual particles within a sample via solid and liquid stages.
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End

I always like to end this lecture with the following quote, mainly because it is so relatable to modern day students. It comes from a 19th Dynasty papyrus in Egypt, from a teacher to his pupil:

I am told that thou forsakest books
and dost abandon thyself to pleasure.
Thou dost wander from tavern to tavern
Every evening the smell of beer, the smell of beer frightens men away from thee
It corrups thy soul,
and thou art like a broken oar
Thou canst guide to neither side
Thou art like a temple without a god
like a house without bread
The people flee from thee
and thou dost strike and wound them
O, that thou wouldst comprehend that beer is an abomination
and that wouldst abjure the pomegranate drink
that thou would not set thy heart on fig wine
and that thou wouldst forget the carob wine
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Cultural Importance of Drink

1/30/2017

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Or Why I do what I do
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The human penchant for the consumption of psychoactive substances is a part of ourselves like our thirst for water. Even modern day society is structured around drinking events, each differing with levels of scale and which beverage is deemed appropriate. Whether it is tea time or a glass of wine, neither is a necessity for overall health and is only seen as a means for hospitality. For better or for worse, the benefits and allure for mind-altering effects play a role in our feasting habits, rituals, code of conduct, work, taxation and our basic dietary requirements.  Yet it was not until the early 19th century when the cynicism towards alcohol developed, and so to the association of intoxication with adolescent behavior. The result of which has shifted the attention of consumption from its cultural importance to its ill effects on society.
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This does not imply humans have not been wary of alcohol’s harmful effects on the body.  Indeed, an ancient Egyptian letter revealed a teacher pleading with their pupil to return to their studies and refrain from over-consumption: 

        I am told that thou forsakest books
        (and) dost abandon thyself to pleasure.
        Thou dost wander from tavern to tavern.
        Every evening the smell of beer,
        The smell of beer frightens men away (from thee).
        It corrupts they soul,
        (and) thou art like a broken oar.
        Thou canst guide to neither side.
        Thou art like a temple without a god,
        (like) a house without bread.
        Thou art detected as thou climbest up the walls,
        And breakest the plank.
        The people flee from thee,
        And thou dost strike and wound them.
        O, that thou wouldst comprehend that wine is an abomination
        And that thou wouldst abjure the pomegranate-drink;
        That thou wouldst not set they heart on fig-wine,
        And that thou woulds forget the carob-wine


Despite the clear distaste for consumption this teacher has, a great deal of Egyptian medicine involved alcohol. There was even beer reserved for priests during times of worship.  If beer was simply a beverage to satisfy hunger and thirst, would we see such fervent dedication to its crafting? This, then, signifies the cultural role drink plays with Egyptian society. 

Thus to gain a better understanding of alcohol and its role in society, it is necessary to study alcohol with a focus on cultural importance, rather than addiction and abuse.
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Alcohol’s primary purpose is to be consumed so it must constantly be produced. This introduces a need for production, technological development, a workforce, and a generation of wealth and income. As such, beer brewing plays a critical role in past economies. One example comes from the inhabitants at Hrísbrú, Iceland. Evidence from the pollen record, faunal remains, a large longhouse, and soil fertilization strongly suggests this area was subject to chiefly rule. There was an overabundance of barley grain, most likely for beer production (it would not make sense to produce beer in times of starvation), and plenty of cattle for human consumption, so it can be concluded that large feasts were held here. Over time, barley cultivation was abandoned and replaced by grazing land, correlating with the time chiefs surrendered political power in the 12th century. In any case, prior to the downfall of chieftains in Scandinavian society, they were using the consumption of alcohol to garner political power. The longhouse at Hrísbrú would require plenty of men to work the fields, and what better way to convince others to work than by offering beer. Beer’s production, then, was involved in all levels of this Icelandic economy. Thus, through the consumption of alcohol, hospitality, social networks and political bonds in human society were strengthened. 

As described previously, alcohol has its own particular artifacts and rituals associated with it, due to its role in human material culture.  Different cultures have their own drinking vessels as exemplified by the drinking horns of Nordic fame, puzzle jugs, Bell Beaker and Grooved Ware pottery, which is often assumed to have contained alcoholic beverages. With these, rituals develop. As described by Willis (2002), in 1873 Joseph Thomson came across a village in Tanzania performing a ritual:

 “In the square of the village, propped against a tree, sat a poor woman, apparently half dead with illness of some sort, and looking very much as if she was in the stocks.  Roundabout were some huge pots of native beer...In front of the woman the men danced in succession, with movements and gestures the most extraordinary… I learnt that they were employed in casting out devils from the woman in front of them, and to do this they required to use the most powerful charms they could think of, namely beer, dancing, and music.“
 
Simply put: If there’s no beer, it’s not a ritual [Willis 2002, pg 61].  Thus, alcohol consumption and production, and the associated material culture and rituals are intimately tied to human’s past. Furthermore, alcoholic drinks have substantial nutritional value and have formed a staple component of the diet in past societies.  Cereal grains can become a porridge, bread or beer depending on which culinary practice is applied to it. Put in another way: alcohol represents value to a culture, and once it is consumed, that same value is absorbed into the body. It is of little surprise then, that fermented beverages have more cultural rituals associated with them when compared to other foods.  Past and present societies use alcohol to define and reinforce cultural relations and identity.  In previous anthropological studies, most of these societies promoted the drinking of alcoholic beverages as a means to provide refreshment and nutrition while strengthening family and community identity. Furthermore, each cultural identity developed as a response to the environment constructed by their ancestry (i.e. parents). In Europe, for example, the Roman historian Tacitus recorded the existence of a law amongst the Alemanii Germanic tribe, requiring the donation of beer to be made annually to the temple.  How this tradition developed I am not sure, but it highlights beer’s role as a sacrificial item.
 
With the production of fermented beverages humans have created a cultural variation in their diet, causing evolutionary change amongst the associated species and cultural change among different populations. Each successive population is subjected to more efficient brewing techniques, cultural variation in flavor, ritualistic and consumption practices, and more. This environmental inheritance has lead to certain populations to develop higher allele frequencies for more efficient ethanol metabolization. Hopefully, through research focused on the cultural context rather than abuse, a better understanding of humans relationship with alcohol will develop.

​Alcohol deserves to be subjected to academic research as it can provide insight into human social behaviours, culture, and a better understanding of alcohol’s dangers and benefits.

References

Dietler, M. (2006). Alcohol: anthropological/archaeological perspectives.Annu. Rev. Anthropol., 35, 229-249.

Guerra-Doce, E. (2014). The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented Beverages
and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 1-32.

Hayashida, F. M. (2008). Ancient beer and modern brewers: Ethnoarchaeological observations of chicha production in two regions of the North Coast of Peru. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,27(2), 161-174.

Hornsey, I. S. (2003). A history of beer and brewing (Vol. 34). Royal Society of Chemistry.

Nelson, M. (2005). The barbarian's beverage: A history of beer in ancient Europe. Routledge.

Pearson, M. P. (2003). Food, culture and identity: an introduction and overview Part 1: Cultural approaches to food Part 2: Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Britain-the culinary basis. BAR INTERNATIONAL SERIES,1117, 1-30.

Pérez-Ortı́n,J. E., Querol, A., Puig, S., & Barrio, E. (2002). Molecular characterization of a chromosomal rearrangement involved in the adaptive evolution of yeast strains. Genome research, 12(10), 1533-1539.

Rojo-Guerra, M. Á., Garrido-Pena, R., García-Martínez-de-Lagrán, Í., Juan-Treserras, J., & Matamala, J. C. (2006, January). Beer and bell beakers: drinking rituals in copper age Inner Iberia. In Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society (Vol. 72, pp. 243-265). Cambridge University Press.

Sherrat, A. (1987). Cups that cheered. Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean. Bar International Series, 331, 81-103.

Sherratt, A. (1995). Alcohol and its alternatives: symbol and substance in preindustrial cultures. Consuming habits: Drugs in history and anthropology, 11-46.

Unger, R. W. (2004). Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Willis, J. (2002). Potent brews: a social history of alcohol in East Africa 1850-1999. James Currey.

Zori, D., Byock, J., Erlendsson, E., Martin, S., Wake, T., & Edwards, K. J. (2013). Feasting in Viking Age Iceland: sustaining a chiefly political economy in a marginal environment. Antiquity, 87(335), 150-165.
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State of Publishing Pt. II

1/16/2017

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Antiquity

The article The scholars who look at American History through Beer-Tinted Glasses claimed that an interest in beer history was on the rise. It certainly seems to be happening, what with the amount of talks, conferences, and blogs on the matter. This claim isn't necessarily unique either. Even in his 2006 paper, Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives, Dr. Michael Dietler states that a scholarly interest in the history of alcohol was on the rise.  It is easy for me to assume this is true. I have payed more attention to the topic now than I did five years ago, which gives my assumptions bias.

So to see whether research into alcohol within archaeology is increasing, I’ll be having a look through academic journals to track brewing archaeological articles.

This time: Antiquity

Findings

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Antiquity's publications through the years.
​There does seem to be a bit of difference between Antiquity and the Journal of Archaeological Science, which was reviewed last time. Before, there seemed to be an overall increase in the frequency of articles written. For Antiquity, there were a few publications around the 60's, which staggered off until the late 90's. After which, there has been a steady production of one article regarding brewing archaeology - most of it about wine (which I will get back to later). 

This paints a different picture than before; this suggests that brewing archaeology is not on the rise. Rather, there is consistent work on the topic in low numbers. Do note, however, this is a limited search. There are plenty of articles on food processing, vessel ceramics, pottery production, and residue analysis. Out of necessity, I only take articles directly relating to alcohol. 

The structure of this journal should be taken into account before any conclusions can be made. Since its start in 1927, Antiquity has published four issues every year, with each issue having a range of research articles, method descriptions, debates, and book reviews. Currently, this journal is on Volume 90, issue 354. In 2015, they decided to switch to produce six volumes instead of four. 

This structure, then, could be a factor as to why we see this pattern of one article a year. When you have limited production, the editor has to decide on articles with greater impact. With such a limited space, it is easy to imagine that some brewing articles were overlooked.

Other corroborating factors could include: 
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  • An increase in archaeological researchers overall
    • With an increase in scientists, so too would follow a general increase in article publishing. As a result of this, brewing archaeology could be drowned out by more popular (i.e. safe) research themes
  • Antiquity does not focus on food production
    • This would explain why we see so few articles released
  • One researcher's career was focused on food production at one period of time
    • Which could explain why there is a gap between the 60's and late 90's 

Yet, however with all things in science, this requires further research. At least, though, there is a clear trend starting to form that suggests brewing archaeology is indeed on the rise:
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Total amount of publications from both journals.

References

2016
Luley, B.P. and Piquès, G. (2016) ‘Communal eating and drinking in early Roman Mediterranean France: a possible tavern at Lattara, c. 125–75 BC’, Antiquity, 90(349), pp. 126–142. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2015.184.

2015
Bruhn, J. (2015) ‘Dominic Ingemark . Glass, alcohol and power in Roman Iron Age Scotland. 300 pages, 153 b&w illustrations, 17 colour photographs. 2014. Edinburgh: National Museums Scotland; 978-1-905267-81-1 paperback £35.’, Antiquity, 89(343), pp. 242–243. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2014.20.

2014
Pollard, A.M., Bray, P.J. and Gosden, C. (2014) ‘Is there something missing in scientific provenance studies of prehistoric artefacts?’, Antiquity, 88(340), pp. 625–631. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00101255.

2013
Zori, D., Byock, J., Erlendsson, E., Martin, S., Wake, T. and Edwards, K.J. (2013) ‘Feasting in Viking Age Iceland: sustaining a chiefly political economy in a marginal environment’, Antiquity, 87(335), pp. 150–165. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00048687.

2012
Areshian, G.E., Gasparyan, B., Avetisyan, P.S., Pinhasi, R., Wilkinson, K., Smith, A., Hovsepyan, R. and Zardaryan, D. (2012) ‘The chalcolithic of the Near East and south-eastern Europe: discoveries and new perspectives from the cave complex Areni-1, Armenia’, Antiquity, 86(331), pp. 115–130. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00062499.

Dietrich, O., Heun, M., Notroff, J., Schmidt, K. and Zarnkow, M. (2012) ‘The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities. New evidence from Göbekli Tepe, south-eastern Turkey’, Antiquity, 86(333), pp. 674–695. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00047840.

2011
Jané, M.R.G. (2011) ‘The meaning of wine in Egyptian tombs: the three amphorae from Tutankhamun’s burial chamber’, Antiquity, 85(329), pp. 851–858. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00068356.

2008
Iriarte, J., Gillam, J.C. and Marozzi, O. (2008) ‘Monumental burials and memorial feasting: an example from the southern Brazilian highlands’, Antiquity, 82(318), pp. 947–961. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00097702.

Miller, N.F. (2008) ‘Sweeter than wine? The use of the grape in early western Asia’, Antiquity, 82(318), pp. 937–946. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00097696.

2007
Valamoti, S.M., Mangafa, M., Koukouli-Chrysanthaki, C. and Malamidou, D. (2007) ‘Grape-pressings from northern Greece: the earliest wine in the Aegean?’, Antiquity, 81(311), pp. 54–61. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00094837.

2006
Renfrew, J. (2006) ‘Food and feasting in antiquity’, Antiquity, 80(310), pp. 1000–1003. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X0009459X.

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2001
Brown, A.G., Meadows, I., Turner, S.D. and Mattingly, D.J. (2001) ‘Roman vineyards in Britain: stratigraphic and palynological data from Wollaston in the Nene Valley, England’, Antiquity, 75(290), pp. 745–757. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00089250.

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1998
Day, P.M. and Wilson, D.E. (1998) ‘Consuming power: Kamares Ware in Protopalatial Knossos’, Antiquity, 72(276), pp. 350–358. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00086622.

1997
Rausing, G. (1997) ‘The wheeled cauldrons and the wine’, Antiquity, 71(274), pp. 994–999. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00085884.

Samuel, D. (1997) ‘McGOVERN PATRICK E. , FLEMING STUART J. & KATZ SOLOMON H. . The origins and ancient history of wine. xxiv+409 pages, 132 illustrations, 13 tables. 1995. Langhorne (PA): Gordon & Breach Publishers: 2-88124-577-3 hardback £55 & $85.’, Antiquity, 71(271), pp. 236–237. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00084799.

1996
Rice, P.M. (1996) ‘Peru’s colonial wine industry and its European background’, Antiquity, 70(270), pp. 785–800. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00084064.

1995
Dronfield, J. (1995) ‘Subjective vision and the source of Irish megalithic art’, Antiquity, 69(264), pp. 539–549. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00081928.

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1978
Dickson, J.H. (1978) ‘Bronze age mead’, Antiquity, 52(205), pp. 108–113. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00071921.

1966
Stubbings, F.H. (1966) ‘Zafiropoulo Jean : Mead and Wine: A History of the Bronze Age in Greece (translated from the French by Peter Green). London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1966. 156 pp., 22 pls., 19 figs. 30s.’, Antiquity, 40(159), pp. 240–241. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00032622.

1959
Piggott, S. (1959) ‘A LATE BRONZE AGE WINE TRADE?’, Antiquity, 33(130), pp. 122–123. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00118368.

1956
Food Production in N. Africa (1956) Antiquity, 30(120), pp. 223–224. doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00118113.
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Brewing in Africa

12/14/2016

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Trials and Tribulations of African Women
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Beer, in an archaeological sense, is a part of our collective material culture. Societies craft objects as defined by their cultural norms, applying these motifs to pottery, jewelry, or glassware. Beer certainly fits within this, but it is unique in the sense that it is created specifically to be consumed. There are objects surrounding beer as well, like mugs, artwork, blogs and the like, all signifying the object's role in that society that defines its material culture. In analyzing these objects over time, researchers can make inferences on cultural evolution. So examining beer’s role in society, we can see how that culture grows. 
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In Africa, one such change is happening - women are shifting the brewing of traditional beers (usually reserved for rituals) into fledgling businesses as a means of self-reliance and financial security.
Historically, beers were reserved for special rituals: annual ceremonies, births, baptisms, funerary rites, etc. Now, due to external pressures (famines, cattle loss, raiding parties, disease), women need new means of income to support their families and are turning to brewing, given its low level of investment.

There are some parallels between medieval Europe and Africa with the division of labor between the sexes. In England, for example, men were often busy with heavy work (such as farming, construction, or fishing), and the women were occupied with maintaining the household. This often meant brewing, baking, cleaning, sewing, maintaining gardens, washing, etc. But when there was surplus beer, these so-called ‘Alewives’ could sell extra to the village, and some employed this tactic full time. We see this now in Africa as well.

But it isn’t so simple. Brewing beer for ceremonies, weddings and funerals fall wayside to make a profit, denying thousands of years of tradition. But when you have household responsibilities, children to feed, and a farm to look after, it becomes harder and harder to justify free beer to the elders rather than selling the beer in town.

Surely this happened in western culture as well, once humans realized you could make a profit off beer’s industrialization. I would like to say that this is a great time to be in Africa; to see the changing of culture and the promotion of brewing culture. However, these women are not turning to brewing because it’s fun, but because it is necessary.
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The Situation

In Africa, there is meaning attached to beer. Drinking can mark relations of equality, hierarchy, cooperation, and the embodiment of kinship. Beers are used for ceremonies such as seasonal rituals, births, weddings, offerings to the ancestors, and part of the feed given to working parties. As with the rest of the world, drinking in Africa is seen as an essential social activity, related to sharing and hospitality. Although it might seem trivial to some, such drinking and tradition work to maintain social cohesion amongst those participating. 

Given the high inflation, falling wages, and low producer prices in most African countries, income is so low that people need to diversify their livelihood. In the Karamoja region of Uganda, it was common for men and women to live separately. This is a particularly difficult region to live in, as the area is characterized by intense heat, sporadic rainfall, droughts, and general unpredictability. So, the adopted strategy for humans was a dual subsistence of farming and herding. Women and children would tend to sorghum farms when weather allowed, and men would travel with cattle herds to ideal grazing areas. In periods of extended drought, women would go to the cattle camps to have access to milk and meat. 

But this has changed in recent history. Droughts have increased in frequency, sociopolitical unrest as a result of colonialism, and an increase in raiding parties have drastically altered the way of life in this region of Uganda. Men still maintain large herds, but migration is limited to remote locations so as to avoid raiding parties, leaving women and children no access to milk. Plus, with the droughts, sorghum harvests haven‘t been optimal, and in some regions failed altogether. 

So what is a family to do? Some common industries where women participate are the gathering and selling of firewood, water, materials for buildings, or selling tobacco. Yet none of these provides enough income as well as the brewing of beer. And it seems like women have been choosing this as a means of support for awhile. I would even venture to guess that this has been a fallback plan throughout all of African history, yet so far there is no evidence before the 1900s. In Karamoja, Uganda, as described above, the selling of beer didn’t begin until 2004. In other regions, like Gwembe, Zambia, women began selling beer as a response to their relocation after the village river was dammed in 1999. 

There are real benefits for women entering the brewing industry. It works as income redistribution between men and women, as men make up the majority of consumers. With these earnings, women can buy foods like beans, dried fish, vegetables, nuts, tomatoes, and milk, providing their family with better nutrition. In fact, an analysis of nutrition comparison between those who sold beer and those who didn’t found that those who sold beer had greater energy, protein, fat, calcium and vitamin A intake. 
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Logistics of selling beer

In a sample in Nakwamoru, Kenya, 80% of the participating women brewed or sold beer. Eight were involved with brewing and selling or at least aided their friends and family, and another four regularly assisted these women. In Tanzania, a quarter of surveyed women brewed up to four times a month. Even more so, in a 1980s survey of 100,000 households in Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and South Africa found women to be heavily concentrated in food processing, retailing, and small textile businesses.

Records of beer commercialization extend to the 1900s and is still a leading strategy for women in modern times, showing that the brewing industry is a reliable and standard method as a means of support amongst humans. Even still, women are becoming brewers in higher numbers. Why? The technological requirements to brew beer are minimal. Thus, the initial investment is small, and most women share equipment, making it easier for women to enter into the business. Plus, beer must be sold within two to three days to avoid souring, which gives rapid returns. 

Beer production usually involves multiple women working together, allowing the brew happen close to home, and subsequently watch over the children in attendance. With such cooperation, brewing usually takes roughly 120 min, so it is not a major burden on other responsibilities. 

Those involved in the industry but did not brew beer engaged in what is known as ‘booking.' That is, a woman would reserve (book) a certain amount of beer for resale in urban trading centers. In Uganda for example, on average, a woman would purchase 3000 USH (Ugandan Shillings) worth (roughly 20 L / 5 gal) and sold it retail for up to 4000 USH. Beer is generally sold in one-litre plastic measurements, which regularly goes for around 100s. This is standardized through local governments, in hopes of preventing more expensive beers being introduced into the market, protecting the purchasing power of drinkers, and preventing women from going out of business.

Material wise, most sacks of grain hold around 100kg. The mash tuns/brewing kettles are usually just an oil drum, which can either be rented or loaned, which typically gives 60 l of beer. One oil drum sells for 10,000 USH each and is usually too expensive to purchase on one’s own. For fuel, one survey showed that 25% of total wood consumed was solely for brewing beer. If a woman collects her own firewood, she can expect to double her initial investment (or more if she has her own crops). 
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Nutrition

Then there’s also the nutritional aspects of beer. Women who help during brew day are often paid with either beer for themselves, or the dregs (leftover grain) which can be made into a porridge or to make more beer. Typically, a full serving of beer is around 500 ml, and can be shared amongst children, or between a mother and infant. The majority of consumed beer turns out to be strained commercial beer, averaging at levels around roughly 230 ml per day. The dregs left over from brewing is also utilized, where approximately 60 - 70 % of it was consumed by children.

Although in modern Europe beer is not seen as a healthy drink, unfiltered beer is a good source of nutrition, particularly protein, and is only rivaled by milk. Households who had access to cattle showed the highest level of nutrition, followed by those who participated in beer retail, with the lowest level of nutrition from those who did not have cattle nor beer. This is attributed to how brewing provides a source of income to allow women to purchase ingredients for the household and the overall nutrients within beer (calories, iron, niacin, and protein) itself. There have been studies which attempted to evaluate nutrient levels in African beer, but they were only estimates based off of assumptions. So, in agreement with those previous studies, more research is required to understand the nutrition of the African diet fully. But suffice to say, beer provides much of the daily calories and has some nutrients equivalent to bread.
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Gender

It is said ‘wives of men with or without cattle sell beer,' highlighting beer’s overall importance within African society. But I am unsure as to why brewing is a task solely for women, and I’d have to fall on the old adage that since brewing is seen as a job for the home, it thus falls into women’s responsibility.

There are times when men brew, for offerings for spirits, funerals, or - more rarely - for the market. It seems men engage in brewing activity when it does not interfere with the household, nor harbors any risk to themselves. One typical male drink is derived from bamboo sap, in which men have their own personal crop. Sap has no other uses for the household, nor does a man need to deplete financial resources to brew it, given its simplicity. Thus, men harbor no risk when engaging in brewing. So it seems the main reason men rarely brew is due to their access to female labor (wives, sisters, daughters) and can obtain beer without having to work for it. Plus, since men traditionally do not care for children (nor bear any), nor collect water or prepare food, they have greater access to income generating opportunities, so brewing might not be as appealing.
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Risks

It might be counter-productive to promote beer consumption, considering the repercussions of alcoholism. But that is not my place to decide who should and shouldn’t drink or produce alcohol. Doing so assumes others are incapable of responsibility or overlook the hidden dangers. Naturally, this is not the case. There are plenty of cultural stigmas against drunkenness amongst African communities, as is the case in all societies who drink. At least in a time of political unrest, the dangers of raiding parties, and the stress of raising children, at least beer provides relief from the hardships of life. 

Be that as it may, there is still a risk in selling beer. Most women do not brew themselves, but ‘book’ to resell it in towns. If a person leaves early in the morning to obtain the daily supply, only to find out that someone already reserved it, they won’t have any business that day. If however she is lucky and books beer for sale, she then has to deal with money. Most purchase beer through credit, forcing women to collect debts and thus preventing them from achieving the full monetary potential.  In Uganda for example, a woman could earn up to 1000 USH (Ugandan Shillings), but most only get 500 to 600 USH. Even with 600 USH, however, she would be able to purchase 200 USH maize, 100 USH tomatoes, 100 USH cooking oil, and another 200 USH on beer. But if the same woman only receives 200 USH in a day, she’ll need 100 for beer to continue working, leaving her no money for food. To complicate this further, these beers sour quickly, imposing the pressure to sell it as fast as possible. 

Of course, this only works when there is a good harvest. More financially stable households are capable of forgoing beer sales when crops are poor, relying on other sources such as livestock or tobacco. Yet lower income families are forced to sell beer in hopes to earn enough to purchase food later on.

And then there are the social risks. As stated before, there are cultural traditions one has to adhere too, whether for funeral ceremonies, coming-of-age, or other seasonal rituals. The Karamoja elders, for example, are traditionally given preferential treatment for ritual brews, but this now comes at the risk of losing profits. Rejecting the elders for profit could have real implications for a woman’s social stature, one she can use to gain help from the community. So much so, giving females their financial independence is viewed as an assault on traditional patriarchal families and drives some men to violence against these rural brewers.

Despite all of this, these women still choose to brew. They face plenty of challenges, like unequal access to information, education, agricultural support, markets, and lack of capital for investments. Plus, land rights are granted to men, either through marriage or inheritance. So supporting women in agriculture and brewing is a strategy which would drastically improve their livelihood. Given their essential role in agricultural growth, empowering women leads to economic development. They would be given more autonomy in their lives, increased household food supply, better health outcomes for their children and decreased overall vulnerability to outside influences (drought, illness, etc.) and sexually transmitted diseases. 

Little has been done however to support women in the brewing industry nor do foreign aid recognize its importance. This lack of attention means there are no development intervention programs, business training, or small credit programs. There at least have been efforts to improve wood consumption with the Dutch TNO and Woodburning Stove group in the 80s, but that has since ceased. 

This dismissal, it seems, is due to a lack of research and holding onto prohibitionist era ideologies. The pervasiveness of Islam and Christianity and adherence to nineteenth-century teetotalism permeates the belief that alcohol is a societal disorder, and should only be given attention when it is to prevent alcohol’s influence. But this situation is not black and white. True that beer is not entirely beneficial for children, the profits women obtain from beer sales, however, is enough for mothers to purchase better food supplies. 

As stated by McCoy et. al., “Better integration of supportive systems for women - from agricultural education to family planning - as well as joint, multi-sectoral approaches from health and agriculture, would better address the complexities of achieving safe and sustainable livelihoods...income earning potential as brewing may protect women’s (limited) autonomy over earned income and help to reduce the ubiquitous availability of alcohol.”

Such initiatives sound great to me, but as far as I know, they don’t exist.
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References

Bennett, J. M., T. Sixteenth, C. Journal, N. Summer, and S. C. Journal. 2014. Ale , Beer , and Brewsters in England : Women ’ s Work in a Changing World , 1300-1600 by Review. Sixt. Century J. 31: 8–9.

Carlson, R. G. 1990. Banana beer, Reciprocity, and Ancestor Propitiation among the Haya of Bukoba, Tanzania. Source Ethnol. 29: 297–311.

Clausen, T., I. Rossow, N. Naidoo, and P. Kowal. 2009. Diverse alcohol drinking patterns in 20 African countries. Addiction. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02559.x

Dancause, K. N., H. A. Akol, and S. J. Gray. 2010. Beer is the cattle of women: Sorghum beer commercialization and dietary intake of agropastoral families in Karamoja, Uganda. Soc. Sci. Med. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.12.008

Dietler, M. 2006. Alcohol: Anthropological/ Archaeological Perspectives. Annu. Rev. Anthr. 35: 229–49. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123120

Green, M. 1999. Trading on inequality: gender and the drinks trade in southern Tanzania. Africa Maia Green Africa 69: 404–425. doi:10.2307/1161215

Holtzman, J. 2001. The Food of Elders, the “Ration” of Women: Brewing, Gender, and Domestic Processes among the Samburu of Northern Kenya. Am. Anthropol. 103: 1041–1058. doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.1041

Jennings, J., K. L. Antrobus, S. J. Atencio, E. Glavich, R. Johnson, G. Loffler, and C. Luu. 2005. “ Drinking Beer in a Blissful Mood ” Alcohol Production, Operational Chains, and Feasting in the Ancient World. Curr. Anthropol. 46: 275–303. doi:10.1086/427119

Kubo, R. 2014. Production of indigenous alcoholic beverages in a rural village of Tanzania. J. Inst. Brew. doi:10.1002/jib.127

Mccall, M. 1996. Rural brewing, exclusion, and development policy-making. Gend. Dev. 4: 29–38.
​
Platt, B. S. 2016. Some Traditional Alcoholic Beverages and their Importance in Indigenous African Communities. Quart. J. Stud. AZc. Nutr. Rev. Lancet Voeding Brit. med.J. i Arch. NeuroZ. Psychiat. Chicago Lancet 14: 257–287. doi:10.1079/PNS19550026
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Mbege

10/19/2016

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Banana beer from Africa

Beer is not confined to malted barley, hops and water as the reinheitsgebot would have you believe. Nor should it be limited to locally sourced barley and wheat and whatever the brewer found at the farmers market. If you define beer as any fermented beverage whose sugars are derived from cereals, it leaves room for much more experimentation.

The easiest place for inspiration is our collective past. In Africa alone, it is said to have hundreds of beer styles. Plus, these indigenous alcoholic beverages account for 80% of consumption in rural Africa. However, these traditions are difficult to study given the negative influence of colonialism, no written record before European involvement, and the importation of foreign brands. Plus, the details that do exist remain unclear. 

Despite this, one tradition I find fascinating is the use of bananas in brewing.​
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Mbege Beer

Enter mbege, a banana beer brewed by the Chaga (Chagga, Wachaga) people in Tanzania. The Chaga tribe are within the Bantu-speaking group and the third largest ethnic group in Tanzania. Traditionally, they live on the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro where the environment is highly suitable for agriculture. Although best known for Arabica coffee, the Chaga’s main crop is the banana which they use for cooking, brewing, and fruit.
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Mbege Production

Production is divided into three steps: Nyalu preparation, Mso preparation, followed by the mixing step.

Nyalu Preparation

Nyalu refers to fermented banana juice, which serves as the primary source for fermentative organisms. In the Chaga tribe, this is done by cooking a 1:1 ratio of ripened bananas to water. This mixture is then cooked over high temperature until the liquid turns red and no more clumps remain. This is then filtered and left to ferment (via open fermentation) for 9 - 12 days, depending on the season. 

Prior to fermentation, some brewers add powdered bark (called Msesewe) to the liquid. This bark, derived from the Rauvolfia caffra tree, provides a level of bitterness and aids in fermentation. In previous studies, it was seen that tannins from Mangrove tree bark serve as a protective agent against microbial infection, except for yeast. ​
Picture
Nyalu
It is said that Nyalu produced with msesewe will finish fermenting within five days, due to the protective effects of the bark. I wouldn’t be surprised if it also served as an inoculant, given that some yeasts thrive on trees.

The Chaga method of banana juice production seems to be one of the few that cook bananas to extract liquid. Other methods of banana juice production are to mash ripe bananas in a trough, removing the liquid through sieves of grass or banana leaves.  For example, the Haya (a now disbanded kingdom in Tanzania) usually press bananas to extract liquid. It is unclear which method of juice extraction is best. It is entirely possible, though, that one method provides a different flavor than the other.

Mso Preparation

Once the Nyalu is close to finishing, the mso is prepared. Mso is simply an unfermented wort derived from malted finger millet. This is done by heating water and adding a small fraction of ground millet. Once it reaches temperature, roughly half of the liquid is removed and set aside. Then, the rest of the malted millet is added to the mix.

This is then cooked for 25 minutes. The amylase present in millet is operative between 50 - 70 C (after which it denatures). To control temperature and thickness of the mash, the extracted liquid is added back to the mixture. If normal water was used, it would drop the temperature too low, thus stopping the mashing process. Plus, using the liquid Mso extract serves as a way to thin the mash in case it gets too thick. After the mash, the liquid is then moved to separate containers to cool.

Mixing

Once cood, nyalu and mso are mixed in a barrel. The resultant liquid is called togwa and left to ferment. Even after 6 hours, alcohol levels will rise to around 2.5%, but if left to ferment for two days, alcohol levels should reach roughly 4% abv. It is assumed that nyalu serves as the primary source for yeast, given that it is the only liquid left to ferment separately.

The main fermentative organisms responsible were found to be Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus plantarum. ​​​
Picture
Mbege

Mbege beer recipe

In a previous study, the following amounts were reported:

  • 70l Water (35l reserved for Nyalu, 35l reserved for malted finger millet)
  • 35l of Ripened Banana
  • 20l of malted finger millet

Therefore, water to banana juice is 1:1, and for water to malt is roughly 1:3. If you were to attempt brewing mbege, then keeping these ratios should result in a solid recreation of the brew.

​Determining the amount of bananas required to produce adequate levels of juice have so far gone unreported. Further complicating this issue is the amount of banana cultivars present in Tanzania. In a previous study, a total of 18 varieties were reported, yet the total number is well over 100, ​with some names being synonyms and homonyms. Not much is known how nomenclature is derived, thus causing one of the biggest problems in classifying banana varieties. Plus in Tanzania, the farming of bananas is largely for local consumption, and so are bred to meet local tastes. Thus, choosing the right kind of banana to replicate this drink proves difficult. It is not as simple as just choosing cooking bananas, which are less sweet. Even more discouraging (but cool at the same time), there are banana cultivars specified for brewing. So locating the right type of banana may be impossible.

Plus finger millet might be hard to come by, despite the advent of gluten-free beer. Yet I imagine it would be easier to acquire than the right kind of banana. 
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Picture
Traditional Chaga hut

Difficulties in studying mbege

Keep a dose of healthy skepticism when reviewing articles on mbege production. There is not much out there in regards to academic publishing. When there is, citing is somewhat scarce. For example, most just claim that the Chaga people are the founders of mbege, yet do not link it to other banana-based beverages. Given the diversity of tradition among tribes, mbege production might vary between groups within Tanzania, so observations of brewing might be tribe-specific. Plus, it is unclear whether the Chaga learned to make mbege on their own, or was taught to them by neighboring groups.

European influences also have to be taken into account. In the early 1900s, British officials, scientists, missionaries, and settlers collectively condemned finger millet. They attempted to convince Chaga farmers of millet’s immorality, lack of market value, among others. At first, this advice was ignored, but by the 1980s, millet was only found sporadically. This, coupled with the fact that the written record for the Chaga people doesn’t begin until roughly 1850 skews historical accuracy. Still, this is a general overview of the practice and should be a decent representation of the tradition.
​​

Conclusions

I find one of the more inspirational takeaways is the banana juice as the source for inoculation, and finger millet as the source of simple sugars. With styles that have multiple sources of sugars, it would be interesting to experiment with a mbege-like fermentation profile (i.e. ferment one, use the other as sugars and vice versa). One such example would be the braggot, a barley-honey brew. Most braggot recipes I have come across state to mix both the barley wort and honey then ferment. It would be interesting to ferment the mead first, then add wort to see if that influences flavor.

It is necessary to record methods of production of mbege and indigenous beverages on the whole, due to the anthropological role they play. IAB’s are accepted forms of payment for labor, are a source of income for women and provide an excellent source of nutrition. Thus, it is imperative to record their production techniques to preserve its place within humans material culture.

References

Carlson, R. G. 1990. Banana beer, Reciprocity, and Ancestor Propitiation among the Haya of Bukoba, Tanzania. Source Ethnol. 29: 297–311.

Kubo, R. 2014. Production of indigenous alcoholic beverages in a rural village of Tanzania. J. Inst. Brew. doi:10.1002/jib.127

Kubo, R., and M. Kilasara. 2016. Brewing Technique of Mbege, a Banana Beer Produced in
Northeastern Tanzania. Beverages 2: 21. doi:10.3390/beverages2030021

Mwesigye, P. K., and T. O. Okurut. 1995. A Survey of the Production and Consumption of Traditional Alcoholic Beverages in Uganda. Process Biochem. doi:10.1016/0032-9592(94)00033-6

Platt, B. S. 2016. Some Traditional Alcoholic Beverages and their Importance in Indigenous African Communities. Quart. J. Stud. AZc. Nutr. Rev. Lancet Voeding Brit. med.J. i Arch. NeuroZ. Psychiat. Chicago Lancet 14: 257–287. doi:10.1079/PNS19550026

​Shayo, N. B., S. A. M. Nnko, A. B. Gidamis ’, and V. M. Dillon2. 1998. Assessment of cyanogenic glucoside (cyanide) residues in Mbege: an opaque traditional Tanzanian beer. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 49: 333–338.
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State of Publishing

10/4/2016

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Brewing archaeology in Academic Journals

The article The scholars who look at American History through Beer-Tinted Glasses claimed that an interest in beer history was on the rise. It certainly seems to be happening, what with the amount of talks, conferences, and blogs on the matter. This claim isn't necessarily unique either. Even in his 2006 paper, Alcohol: Anthropological/ Archaeological Perspectives, Dr. Michael Dietler states that a scholarly interest in the history of alcohol was on the rise.  It is easy for me to assume this is true. I have payed more attention to the topic now than I did five years ago, which gives my assumptions bias.

So to see whether research into alcohol within archaeology is increasing, I’ll be having a look through academic journals to track brewing archaeological articles.

This time: Journal of Archaeological Science
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Findings

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​So, it does appear that scholarly pursuits into beer history is indeed on the rise (albeit slowly). There have been only one or two publications up until 2009. After that, it seems the Journal of Archaeological Science publishes 4 - 5 articles about alcohol in archaeology. For whatever reason, 2009 does seem to be the year that kickstarted it all.

​However, I'll hold off any analysis until after I analyzed more journals.

2016

Pavelka, J. et al., 2016. Immunological detection of denatured proteins as a method for rapid identification of food residues on archaeological pottery. Journal of Archaeological Science, 73, pp.25–35.


García Rivero, D., Jurado Núñez, J.M. & Taylor, R., 2016. Bell Beaker and the evolution of resource management strategies in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Journal of Archaeological Science, 72, pp.10–24.

Garnier, N. & Valamoti, S.M., 2016. Prehistoric wine-making at Dikili Tash (Northern Greece): Integrating residue analysis and archaeobotany. Journal of Archaeological Science, 74, pp.195–206.

​Gismondi, A. et al., 2016. Grapevine carpological remains revealed the existence of a Neolithic domesticated Vitis vinifera L. specimen containing ancient DNA partially preserved in modern ecotypes. Journal of Archaeological Science, 69, pp.75–84.

2015

Barton, H., 2015. Cooking up recipes for ancient starch: assessing current methodologies and looking to the future. Journal of Archaeological Science, 56, pp.194–201.


Lantos, I. et al., 2015. Maize consumption in pre-Hispanic south-central Andes: chemical and microscopic evidence from organic residues in archaeological pottery from western Tinogasta (Catamarca, Argentina). Journal of Archaeological Science, 55, pp.83–99.

​Nieuwenhuyse, O.P. et al., 2015. Tracing pottery use and the emergence of secondary product exploitation through lipid residue analysis at Late Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria). Journal of Archaeological Science, 64, pp.54–66.

Ting, C., 2015. Ancient and Historical Ceramics: Materials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions. Journal of Archaeological Science, 59, pp.219–220.

​Vieugué, J., 2015. What were the recycled potsherds used for? Use-wear analysis of Early Neolithic ceramic tools from Bulgaria (6100–5600 cal. BC). Journal of Archaeological Science, 58, pp.89–102.
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2014

Arobba, D. et al., 2014. Palaeobotanical, chemical and physical investigation of the content of an ancient wine amphora from the northern Tyrrhenian sea in Italy. Journal of Archaeological Science, 45, pp.226–233.

Goldenberg, L., Neumann, R. & Weiner, S., 2014. Microscale distribution and concentration of preserved organic molecules with carbon–carbon double bonds in archaeological ceramics: relevance to the field of residue analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science, 42, pp.509–518.

​Washburn, D.K. et al., 2014. Chemical analysis of cacao residues in archaeological ceramics from North America: considerations of contamination, sample size and systematic controls. Journal of Archaeological Science, 50, pp.191–207.
​
2013

Gur-Arieh, S. et al., 2013. An ethnoarchaeological study of cooking installations in rural Uzbekistan: development of a new method for identification of fuel sources. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(12), pp.4331–4347.


Pecci, A., Cau Ontiveros, M.Á. & Garnier, N., 2013. Identifying wine and oil production: analysis of residues from Roman and Late Antique plastered vats. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(12), pp.4491–4498.

Pecci, A. et al., 2013. Identifying wine markers in ceramics and plasters using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Experimental and archaeological materials. Journal of Archaeological Science.

Pető, Á. et al., 2013. Macro- and micro-archaeobotanical study of a vessel content from a Late Neolithic structured deposition from southeastern Hungary. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(1), pp.58–71.

​Washburn, D.K., Washburn, W.N. & Shipkova, P.A., 2013. Cacao consumption during the 8th century at Alkali Ridge, southeastern Utah. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(4), pp.2007–2013.
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2012

Foley, B.P. et al., 2012. Aspects of ancient Greek trade re-evaluated with amphora DNA evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39(2), pp.389–398.

​Reber, E.A. & Kerr, M.T., 2012. The persistence of caffeine in experimentally produced black drink residues. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39(7), pp.2312–2319.
​
2011

Barnard, H. et al., 2011. Chemical evidence for wine production around 4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near Eastern highlands. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(5), pp.977–984.

Gong, Y. et al., 2011. Investigation of ancient noodles, cakes, and millet at the Subeixi Site, Xinjiang, China. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(2), pp.470–479.

Milanesi, C. et al., 2011. Microscope observations and DNA analysis of wine residues from Roman amphorae found in Ukraine and from bottles of recent Tuscan wines. Journal of Archaeological Science.
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Washburn, D.K., Washburn, W.N. & Shipkova, P.A., 2011. The prehistoric drug trade: widespread consumption of cacao in Ancestral Pueblo and Hohokam communities in the American Southwest. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(7), pp.1634–1640.
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2010

Deforce, K., 2010. Pollen analysis of 15th century cesspits from the palace of the dukes of Burgundy in Bruges (Belgium): evidence for the use of honey from the western Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37(2), pp.337–342.


Figueiral, I. et al., 2010. Archaeobotany, vine growing and wine producing in Roman Southern France: the site of Gasquinoy (Béziers, Hérault). Journal of Archaeological Science, 37(1), pp.139–149.

Isaksson, S., Karlsson, C. & Eriksson, T., 2010. Ergosterol (5, 7, 22-ergostatrien-3β-ol) as a potential biomarker for alcohol fermentation in lipid residues from prehistoric pottery. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37(12), pp.3263–3268.
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2009

Heaton, K. et al., 2009. Towards the application of desorption electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) to the analysis of ancient proteins from artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science.


Jiang, H.-E. et al., 2009. Evidence for early viticulture in China: proof of a grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., Vitaceae) in the Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(7), pp.1458–1465.

Namdar, D. et al., 2009. The contents of unusual cone-shaped vessels (cornets) from the Chalcolithic of the southern Levant. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(3), pp.629–636.

Romanus, K. et al., 2009. Wine and olive oil permeation in pitched and non-pitched ceramics: relation with results from archaeological amphorae from Sagalassos, Turkey. Journal of Archaeological Science.
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Seinfeld, D.M., von Nagy, C. & Pohl, M.D., 2009. Determining Olmec maize use through bulk stable carbon isotope analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(11), pp.2560–2565.
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2008

Hein, A. et al., 2008. Koan amphorae from Halasarna – investigations in a Hellenistic amphora production centre. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(4), pp.1049–1061.

​
Stern, B. et al., 2008. New investigations into the Uluburun resin cargo. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(8), pp.2188–2203.
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2007

​Barnard, H. et al., 2007. Mixed results of seven methods for organic residue analysis applied to one vessel with the residue of a known foodstuff. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34(1), pp.28–37.

2006

Guasch-Jané, M.R. et al., 2006. The origin of the ancient Egyptian drink Shedeh revealed using LC/MS/MS. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33(1), pp.98–101.

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Margaritis, E. & Jones, M., 2006. Beyond cereals: crop processing and Vitis vinifera L. Ethnography, experiment and charred grape remains from Hellenistic Greece. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33(6), pp.784–805.

2004

Bozarth, S.R. & Guderjan, T.H., 2004. Biosilicate analysis of residue in Maya dedicatory cache vessels from Blue Creek, Belize. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31(2), pp.205–215.

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Reber, E.A. & Evershed, R.P., 2004. Identification of maize in absorbed organic residues: a cautionary tale. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31(4), pp.399–410.
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2003

​Manen, J.-F. et al., 2003. Microsatellites from archaeological Vitis vinifera seeds allow a tentative assignment of the geographical origin of ancient cultivars. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30(6), pp.721–729.

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1983

​Knights, B.A. et al., 1983. Evidence concerning the roman military diet at Bearsden, Scotland, in the 2nd Century AD. Journal of Archaeological Science, 10(2), pp.139–152.
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Velde, B. & Courtois, L., 1983. Yellow garnets in roman amphorae—a possible tracer of ancient commerce. Journal of Archaeological Science, 10(6), pp.531–539.
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Iron Age Malt Findings

7/10/2016

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Celtic Brewing Practices

Picture
Around 450 BC in Southern Germany, someone (probably an intern) burnt a special structure. Some thousand years later, a team of archaeologists uncovered this ditch, revealing a well-preserved Iron Age malting facility and a mass amount of germinated barley grain.

To figure out just how Iron Age man was malting, Dr. Hans-Peter Stika set up a few experiments to see if he could replicate these grains found at this archaeological site.

Site Description

PicturePhoto of the ditch excavation, with barley at the bottom [1]
This malting facility is located in Eberdingen-Hochdorf, next to Stuttgart. The area was identified as a farm within the rural residence of a nearby fortified hill top, known as ‘Hohen Asperg.’ There was also a rich grave mound found located just half a kilometer to the east of the site. Given the other finds at the site (such as some fine ceramics and bronze material), it is assumed this farm belonged to a Celtic Prince, probably living at the Hohen Asperg hilltop fort.

Six ditches were found, each approximately 5 - 6 m long, 0.6 m wide and up to 1.1 m deep in a U-shaped profile. Since there was no evidence for erosion, Dr. Stika assumed the walls were supported with wooden boards, despite no such boards being excavated.

The site turned up three different groups of grains (assemblages). Two contained mostly hulled barley. Although the exact amount of barley isnt specified, it is said to be within the thousands of ‘multirowed barley’, which I'm assuming is six-row. The remaining assemblage had only around 266 individual grains and contained a few other species (wheat varieties and wild plants). ​

Experiment

PictureRecovered barley from Hochdorf trenches [1]
So to start the experiment, hulled and naked barley grains were germinated. This was done by soaking both grain types overnight, and then divided into three different groups. These were then exposed to different temperatures, light, and climate:
  • Dark environment with humidity control around 10 °C
  • Dark plus damp cellar around 14 °C
  • Daylight at room temperature

After the germination process, these subgroups were then compared to modern malts. The best results were under dark and cool conditions with constantly high humidity. Signs of germination began after five days.

These experimental grains were then exposed to charring, to make them suitable for comparison to the Hochdorf trench grains. Charring was done at two different temperatures: 250 °C and 350 °C. Grains which were still moist puffed up, whereas dry grains remained morphologically intact. As expected, sprouts from the germination process did not survive, and no sprouts were recovered at the archaeological site.
​

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Interestingly, grains which were left to germinate for seven days or longer did not preserve well.

Conclusions

So, in order to replicate the grains found at the Hochdorf site, barley grain had to dry, be evenly sprouted, and only in a slightly sprouted state. Thus, the authors conclude, that this was most likely a malting facility on a large scale. It is tough to say exactly how malting would have been carried out, but at least we can say that Iron Age man was able to produce a consistent and successful malt. Even when compared to modern standards.

To explain how this structure was destroyed (and thus ‘placed into’ the archaeological record), the following was proposed: a wooden support holding the dry malt accidently caught on fire, eventually collapsed thus scattering the grains over the bottom of the ditch where they were then covered by said wooden frame.

In theory, the ditches could have also been used to dry green malt as well as for germination. Soaked barley grains could easily be spread onto mats (made out of a woven material), and laid on the ditch floor. Then simply cover the top and a damp, cool environment would be created, providing optimal conditions to produce quality malt.

These could also be also used for drying the barley, if a small fire at one end of the ditch were started, and other infrastructure installed to create the necessary airflow to successfully dry the grain. But such objects were not found.

​So what does this all mean? It seems to suggest that Iron Age maltsters knew what they were doing in order to create evenly germinated grain (presumably) for brewing. All there is to do now is to replicate these ditch frames and make some malt.

References

Stika, Hans-Peter. "Early Iron Age and Late Mediaeval malt finds from Germany—attempts at reconstruction of early Celtic brewing and the taste of Celtic beer." Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 3.1 (2011): 41-48.
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    Jordan Rex

    Beer archaeologist

    From California, migrated to the UK to study,  drank in Berlin, now settled in Switzerland

    @timelytipple
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